THE HISTORY, THE ARCTIC AND GLOBAL GEOPOLITICAL TENSIONS

As the Arctic ice melts and new opportunities arise in the region, Greenland has found itself at the centre of a complex geopolitical chessboard involving major global powers such as the United States, Russia, China, and members of the European Union. With Donald Trump poised to return as President of the United States in 10 days, his administration’s renewed interest in Greenland has raised significant concerns among global leaders. This article delves into the strategic importance of Greenland, the Arctic’s evolving role in global geopolitics, and the reactions of nations to Trump’s provocative statements.

GREENLAND'S EARLY HISTORY

Greenland's human history stretches back more than 4,000 years, beginning with the arrival of Arctic hunter-gatherer peoples who migrated from the Bering Sea region via Alaska and Arctic Canada. These groups were part of the broader Arctic cultural complex known as the Denbigh culture. Early inhabitants constructed circular dwellings with a centrally placed hearth, surrounded by parallel rows of upright stones that divided the space into two halves. This housing design was used both in summer and winter, reflecting their adaptability to the harsh Arctic environment.

*Flintstone tools from the Denbigh culture*

INDEPENDENCE I AND SAQQAQ CULTURES

Around 2400 BCE, two distinct groups emerged in Greenland. The Independence I culture settled in the far northern regions, particularly Peary Land, relying heavily on musk oxen as a primary resource. Archaeological finds of spear fragments and animal bones highlight their hunting expertise. Simultaneously, the Saqqaq culture thrived in southern Greenland, particularly around Disko Bay. These groups specialised in hunting reindeer and fishing for seals, with well-preserved archaeological sites providing a nuanced picture of their sophisticated tool-making and subsistence strategies. Skeletal remains from this period are the oldest human remains discovered in Greenland.

Reconstruction of a man from the extinct Saqqaq culture, one of the earliest known inhabitants of Greenland. Based on a 4,000-year-old hairball preserved in Arctic permafrost, the analysis revealed that the man had dark eyes, dry earwax, and a genetic predisposition to baldness. This groundbreaking study utilised ancient DNA to provide insight into the physical traits and ancestry of Greenland's early inhabitants, as detailed by researchers at the University of Copenhagen. Illustration: Nuka Godfredsen.

INDEPENDENCE II AND DORSET CULTURES

The Independence II culture emerged around 600 BCE in northern Greenland, rooted in the Canadian Dorset culture. This group shared many traits with their predecessors but left less archaeological evidence. In western Greenland, the Dorset culture—active from approximately 600 BCE to 0 CE and again from around 700 CE—introduced new technologies and artistic expressions. However, gaps in the archaeological record suggest periods of cultural decline or migration. The eventual end of the Palaeo-Inuit period coincided with a general warming of the Arctic climate.

*Maximum extent of the Late Dorset Culture.*

CULTURAL INTERACTIONS AND THE ARRIVAL OF THE NORSE

During the late Dorset period, artistic and societal changes indicate external influences. Norse artefacts found in Dorset sites suggest contact between these cultures, likely through trade or other interactions. By the 13th century, the Thule culture—ancestors of modern Inuit—arrived in Greenland from Alaska and the Bering Sea region. The Thule people were skilled whalers and established settlements in northwestern Greenland, eventually spreading across the island.

The Thule culture coexisted with the Norse settlers who had arrived in Greenland in the late 10th century. Norse objects, including oak wood and textiles dated to between 1200 and 1400 CE, found in Inuit ruins, indicate trade or other forms of contact. As the climate cooled in the 14th and 15th centuries, Inuit groups expanded their winter settlements into southern Greenland, utilising resources from abandoned Norse farms.

The Discovery of Greenland by Erik the Red" - A.D. 983 (980s), by Carl Rasmussen. This detailed illustration captures Erik the Red's legendary voyage to Greenland, showcasing a Norse longship amidst Arctic waters, icebergs, and wildlife. Date unknown.

1600S TO 1700S: THE ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS AND NEW INUIT MIGRATIONS

In the 17th and 18th centuries, the population in southern Greenland grew as Dutch whalers arrived in the region. Simultaneously, Danish-Norwegian colonists began settling from 1721 onwards. During this period, a new wave of Inuit migration from Canada brought people into the uninhabited northwestern region of Greenland, known as Avanersuaq or the Thule region. This marked a significant phase in Greenland’s demographic and cultural history, bridging its Indigenous heritage with European influences.

***Hans Egede Preaching to Greenlandic Hunters***
A lithograph by Louis Moe (1857–1945), a Danish illustrator and painter. The artwork depicts Hans Egede, known as "the Apostle of Greenland," spreading Christianity among Greenlandic hunters. This image is from Danmarks Historie i Billeder by Museum Director Dr. Phil. D. Mollerup, published in 1898 by Alfred Jacobsen's Lithographic Establishment. The collection is richly illustrated with lithographs, including works by Louis Moe. Public Domain.

1800S: THE KONEBÅD EXPEDITION TO AMMASSALIK

The 19th century saw a renewed interest in exploring and understanding Greenland’s eastern coast, an area that had remained largely uncharted by Europeans. The Danish “Konebåd Expedition” of 1883-1885, led by Gustav Holm and T.V. Garde, marked a significant milestone in this endeavour. Named after the traditional Inuit women's boats (“konebåd”), which were used for parts of the journey, the expedition aimed to map the Ammassalik (Tasiilaq) region and establish contact with the local Inuit population.

Holm and Garde traversed the rugged and ice-bound eastern coastline, often relying on Inuit expertise and technology to navigate the harsh conditions. Their expedition documented the geography, culture, and living conditions of the Inuit communities they encountered, many of whom had had minimal contact with Europeans. Among the expedition members was a helper priest from western Greenland, known as Hanserik or "Little Hans," who played a vital role in bridging communication and cultural understanding. However, he was deeply shocked by the primitive living conditions of his eastern Greenlandic compatriots, which contrasted sharply with his experiences in western Greenland.

The detailed observations and records produced by the expedition significantly expanded Danish knowledge of Greenland’s eastern settlements and laid the groundwork for further integration of these regions into Danish administration. The expedition also highlighted the resilience and adaptability of the Inuit, whose traditional knowledge and skills were essential for the expedition’s success. The Konebåd Expedition remains a key chapter in the history of Arctic exploration, illustrating the intersection of European curiosity and the invaluable contributions of Indigenous knowledge.

Painting by Carl Rasmussen depicting Gustav Holm’s 'Konebåd Expedition' (1883-1885) to Ammassalik, Greenland. The scene highlights Inuit women navigating traditional umiaq ('women's boats') and men in kayaks, assisting Danish explorers in their journey through the icy waters. The expedition played a vital role in documenting the geography and culture of East Greenland’s Inuit communities.

1900S: CULTURAL EXPLORATION, CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES, AND CONTROVERSIES

Knud Rasmussen: The Arctic Explorer and Chronicler of Inuit Culture.

Knud Rasmussen (1879–1933), often referred to as the “Father of Eskimology,” was a pioneering Danish-Greenlandic explorer, ethnographer, and writer whose work significantly shaped the understanding of Inuit culture and history. Rasmussen’s unique position, as a man with both European and Greenlandic roots, allowed him to bridge cultural divides and immerse himself in the rich traditions of the Inuit people. His legacy endures as one of the most influential figures in Arctic exploration and cultural preservation.

Preserver of Inuit myths and traditions.

Rasmussen’s most notable contribution was his dedication to documenting Inuit myths, legends, and daily life. He recognised that rapid modernisation and Western influence threatened to erase the oral traditions that had sustained the Inuit for generations. By travelling extensively across the Arctic—most famously during his Fifth Thule Expedition (1921–1924)—he collected stories, songs, and rituals from Inuit communities spanning Greenland, Canada, and Alaska. These efforts culminated in seminal works such as Myter og Sagn fra Grønland (Myths and Legends from Greenland) and Across Arctic America.

Rasmussen’s documentation was not merely an academic exercise; it was an act of cultural preservation. His work ensured that the spiritual and mythological world of the Inuit would not be forgotten, offering a vivid glimpse into the cosmology, survival strategies, and profound connection to nature that defined their way of life.

Builder of bridges: the Thule trading station.

In 1910, Rasmussen co-founded the Thule Trading Station in northern Greenland with Peter Freuchen. While its primary function was economic—providing Inuit hunters with tools and supplies in exchange for furs—it also served as a hub for cultural exchange. The station’s name, borrowed from the mythical “Ultima Thule,” symbolised Rasmussen’s belief in connecting the Arctic to the broader world while respecting its unique heritage.

Comparison to the Brothers Grimm.

Rasmussen’s work bears some resemblance to that of the Brothers Grimm, the German philologists and folklorists renowned for collecting and publishing German fairy tales in the 19th century. Both Rasmussen and the Grimms sought to preserve the oral traditions of their respective cultures, driven by a recognition that these stories were at risk of being lost in an era of cultural and industrial transformation.

However, their motivations and methods differed. The Brothers Grimm aimed to foster a sense of national identity through their collection of German folklore, whereas Rasmussen’s work was rooted in a desire to honour and safeguard Inuit culture for its intrinsic value. Furthermore, Rasmussen’s efforts involved physically traversing the Arctic and living among the Inuit, whereas the Grimms primarily relied on storytellers who came to them. Despite these differences, both Rasmussen and the Grimms contributed to the preservation of cultural identity through the written word.

Legacy

Knud Rasmussen’s impact extends far beyond his lifetime. He not only preserved a rich cultural tapestry for future generations but also raised awareness of the resilience, creativity, and wisdom of the Inuit. His work continues to inspire anthropologists, historians, and explorers, while his name remains synonymous with the spirit of Arctic exploration.

In many ways, Rasmussen’s life embodied the values he sought to celebrate: adaptability, curiosity, and a profound respect for the natural and cultural worlds. By preserving the Inuit’s stories, he ensured that their voices would echo across generations, much like the enduring fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm.

FROM INTEGRATION TO SELF-GOVERNMENT

The 20th century marked a turning point in Greenland’s political and social history, particularly with the constitutional changes of 1953. Greenland was formally integrated into the Kingdom of Denmark through an amendment to the Danish Constitution, which abolished its colonial status and made it an equal part of Denmark. Greenlanders were granted Danish citizenship, and the region gained representation in the Danish Parliament. However, this integration was not without challenges, as many Greenlanders felt that their unique cultural identity was overshadowed by Danish influence.

In 1979, Greenland took a significant step toward greater autonomy with the introduction of Home Rule. This system granted the Greenlandic government control over a wide range of domestic affairs, including education, healthcare, and fisheries, while Denmark retained authority over foreign policy, defence, and monetary matters. Home Rule marked a turning point in the Greenlandic push for self-determination.

In 2009, Greenland’s status evolved further with the adoption of the Self-Government Act. This legislation transferred additional powers to Greenland, including control over judicial affairs, policing, and natural resources. The act also recognised Greenlanders as a distinct people under international law with the right to self-determination. The move was celebrated as a milestone in Greenland’s journey toward potential independence, with the option for full sovereignty remaining a possibility for the future.

The Greenlandic flag, named Erfalasorput, was first hoisted in 1985 on Greenland's National Day, 21 June. It was designed by the Greenlandic painter and graphic artist Thue Christiansen (1940–2022) and was chosen from among many submitted proposals. The symbol represents the rising sun over the polar ice, signifying the return of light and warmth at midsummer. The colours - red and white - are those of the Danish flag, Dannebrog, symbolising Greenland's connection to Denmark and the Nordic region. The flag may be used anywhere in Denmark without special permission.

THE THULE RELOCATION

In 1953, the establishment of the U.S. military base at Thule in northwestern Greenland brought controversy. To make way for the base, the Danish government forcibly relocated over 100 members of the Thule tribe from their ancestral lands to a settlement further south, without their consent. This act of displacement caused widespread hardship and left a lasting scar on the affected communities. The Thule relocation has since become a symbol of the disregard for Greenlandic rights during this period.

*Thule Air Base, now Pituffik Space Base.*

THE SPIRAL SCANDAL

Another major controversy emerged in the 1960s and 1970s when Danish authorities implemented a covert birth control programme targeting Greenlandic teenage girls. Without proper consent, thousands of girls—some as young as 12—were fitted with intrauterine devices (IUDs), commonly known as spirals, as part of an effort to control population growth. This practice, conducted without the knowledge or agreement of the girls and their families, has since been widely condemned as a violation of human rights. The scandal only came to light decades later, sparking outrage and demands for accountability.

*Naja Lyberth was 14 years old when she was fitted with an intrauterine device (IUD) in the 1970s. Here she is seen at her confirmation in 1976.*

THE FORCED RELOCATION OF GREENLANDIC CHILDREN

One of the most significant yet lesser-known controversies involved the forced relocation of 22 Greenlandic children to Denmark. Beginning in the mid-20th century, these children were taken from their families in Greenland and sent to Denmark to live with Danish foster families or in children’s homes. The stated aim was to integrate them into Danish society and provide them with better opportunities, but the process often permanently severed their ties to Greenlandic cultural traditions and identity, leaving deep emotional scars.

This practice bore striking similarities to assimilation policies imposed on Indigenous children in countries such as the United States, Canada, and Australia. In these contexts, children were often placed in boarding schools or with non-Indigenous families, leading to the loss of language, culture, and community ties.

These events highlight the complexities and inequalities of Greenland’s relationship with Denmark during the 20th century, laying the groundwork for the growing demand for autonomy and self-determination that would emerge in later decades.

The 22 Greenlandic children who were forcibly relocated to Denmark.

WEALTH DISTRIBUTION IN GREENLAND

Greenland is characterised by relatively high income inequality compared to the Nordic countries, yet it maintains a moderate level of social welfare due to its connection to the Kingdom of Denmark. While no specific Gini coefficient is officially reported for Greenland, studies suggest that income inequality is more pronounced than in Denmark or other Nordic nations. This disparity arises from the dual economy prevalent in Greenland: a combination of a modernised urban sector and a traditional subsistence-based rural economy.

Urban centres like Nuuk, the capital, benefit from higher employment rates and better access to education and healthcare, creating a significant gap in living standards between urban and remote settlements. In rural areas, traditional livelihoods such as hunting and fishing remain dominant, but these practices face economic challenges due to climate change and global market fluctuations.

Greenland’s reliance on subsidies from Denmark further influences wealth distribution. While these transfers support public services and infrastructure, they also mask economic vulnerabilities in the local economy. Efforts to diversify Greenland’s economy through resource extraction and tourism aim to address these disparities, but long-term solutions require balancing development with social equity.

In summary, Greenland exhibits moderate to high income inequality, influenced by geographical and economic factors. Understanding and addressing these disparities remain key to fostering sustainable development and social cohesion in the region.

Greenland’s Strategic Importance

Greenland, the world’s largest island, occupies a pivotal position in the Arctic, a region gaining prominence due to climate change. The melting ice is opening new shipping lanes, such as the Northern Sea Route along Russia’s coast and the Northwest Passage through Canada’s Arctic waters. These routes drastically shorten the travel time between Asia, Europe, and North America, presenting lucrative economic and strategic opportunities.

Additionally, Greenland’s untapped resources, including rare earth minerals, oil, and gas, alongside emerging energy exploration opportunities, further increase its importance. For the United States, Greenland’s geographic position is vital for early missile detection systems, as exemplified by the Thule Air Base. This American military installation, established during the Cold War, remains a linchpin in the U.S. missile defence strategy.

Donald Trump’s Renewed Interest in Greenland

Donald Trump’s return to the presidency has reignited global concerns about his administration’s approach to Greenland. Trump previously expressed interest in purchasing Greenland in 2019, a move that was met with near-universal rejection. His recent comments, hinting at leveraging both economic and military pressure to assert control over Greenland, have provoked strong reactions from world leaders.

In Greenland, Prime Minister Múte B. Egede firmly rejected Trump’s assertions, stating, “Greenland is not for sale. We are not a commodity but an independent part of the Kingdom of Denmark with aspirations for greater autonomy.” Denmark’s Prime Minister, Mette Frederiksen, echoed this sentiment, describing Trump’s comments as inappropriate and reaffirming Greenland’s sovereignty.

Reactions from Key Nations

Denmark

As Greenland’s protector within the Kingdom of Denmark, Copenhagen has expressed clear opposition to any attempts to undermine Greenland’s sovereignty. Denmark’s Defence Minister, Troels Lund Poulsen, announced plans to bolster Denmark’s military presence in the Arctic, including purchasing new inspection ships and strengthening Sirius Dog Patrol operations in Northeast Greenland.

France

French Foreign Minister Jean-Noël Barrot criticised Trump’s statements, emphasising the importance of respecting international borders and Greenland’s autonomy. “The European Union will not tolerate threats to its borders,” Barrot declared, highlighting the necessity of multilateral Arctic cooperation to mitigate escalating tensions.

Germany

Germany’s Chancellor Olaf Scholz and Foreign Minister Annalena Baerbock have also voiced concerns. Baerbock stressed that Greenland’s future should be determined by its people without external pressure, calling for adherence to international law and respect for Arctic cooperation mechanisms.

Norway

As an Arctic nation, Norway has urged respect for Greenland’s sovereignty. Norwegian officials advocate for strengthening international collaboration, particularly within the framework of the Arctic Council, to ensure peace and sustainable development in the region.

Canada

While Canada has yet to officially comment on Trump’s renewed interest in Greenland, the nation is closely monitoring developments. Given its proximity to Greenland and shared interests in Arctic sovereignty, Canada remains a key player in Arctic geopolitics.

The Role of Thule Air Base

The Thule Air Base, established during the Cold War, exemplifies Greenland’s strategic military importance. Operated by the U.S. Air Force, it serves as a critical component of the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS). Thule’s radar installations provide early detection of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), safeguarding North America and its allies.

The base’s significance has grown in light of increased tensions with Russia and China. Moscow has intensified its Arctic military activities, reopening Soviet-era bases and deploying advanced missile systems. Meanwhile, China, which describes itself as a “near-Arctic state,” has sought to expand its influence in the region through investments in infrastructure and resource extraction.

The Melting Arctic and Rising Geopolitical Tensions

The Arctic’s transformation due to climate change has amplified its global significance. The melting ice not only facilitates resource extraction but also raises environmental and security challenges. Nations like Russia and the United States are vying for dominance, while smaller Arctic states, including Denmark (via Greenland), Canada, and Norway, strive to balance economic opportunities with environmental preservation.

China’s self-declared Arctic ambitions significantly complicate the already fraught geopolitical landscape. Its “Polar Silk Road” initiative aims to establish shipping routes and increase Chinese economic presence in the Arctic. These moves have alarmed Western powers, prompting calls for enhanced cooperation within NATO and the Arctic Council.

Denmark’s Military Limitations and Plans for Expansion

Denmark’s current military presence in the Arctic is modest compared to major players like the U.S. and Russia. The Sirius Dog Patrol and inspection ships such as the Knud Rasmussen-class vessels are key assets, but their capabilities are limited in scope. Recognising this, Denmark has announced plans to modernise its Arctic defence to ensure a greater strategic presence in the region. This includes investment in drones, satellites, and new maritime patrol vessels.

These initiatives aim to strike a delicate balance between military reinforcement and respecting Greenland’s aspirations for enhanced autonomy while supporting Denmark’s NATO commitments.

CONCLUSION

Greenland’s strategic importance in the Arctic has made it a focal point for geopolitical rivalries. As the ice melts and new opportunities emerge, the region’s future will hinge on navigating a complex balance of international cooperation, respect for sovereignty, and sustainable development. While major powers like the U.S., Russia, and China pursue their interests, smaller Arctic nations and entities like Greenland and Denmark face the challenge of asserting their agency amidst competing pressures.

With Donald Trump’s imminent return to the presidency, the geopolitical stakes in the Arctic have never been higher. The international community must prioritise diplomacy, respect for sovereignty, and environmental stewardship to navigate this increasingly contested region.

COMPARING THE TREATMENT OF INUIT COMMUNITIES IN ALASKA AND GREENLAND

The treatment of Inuit communities in Alaska and Greenland by the United States and Denmark respectively offers a nuanced comparison of colonial legacies and post-colonial policies in the Arctic. While both nations have exerted control over these Indigenous populations, their approaches and the resulting outcomes highlight differences in governance, cultural preservation, and Indigenous rights.

Historical Context and Governance

In Alaska, Inuit populations—part of the broader Native Alaskan community—were subjected to assimilation policies typical of the United States' treatment of Indigenous peoples. From the late 19th century, children were placed in boarding schools where English was enforced, and traditional languages and cultural practices were suppressed. The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) of 1971 ended Indigenous land claims by transferring approximately 45 million acres to Native-owned corporations. While ANCSA provided some economic benefits, it came at the cost of traditional land rights and sovereignty, reinforcing a system that prioritised assimilation and resource exploitation.

In contrast, Greenland experienced a colonial relationship with Denmark that shifted towards integration and eventual self-governance. Greenland's status changed from a colony to a Danish county in 1953, granting Greenlanders Danish citizenship and parliamentary representation. However, this integration often disregarded Inuit cultural identity. For example, Danish policies in the mid-20th century included relocating Inuit from traditional lands for military purposes, such as the Thule relocation in 1953, and the controversial spiral programme in the 1960s and 1970s, where teenage girls were fitted with contraceptive devices without consent. These incidents highlight the paternalistic approach of Danish governance.

Greenland began asserting more autonomy with the introduction of Home Rule in 1979, followed by the Self-Government Act of 2009, which recognised Greenlanders as a distinct people under international law. These measures granted Greenland control over many domestic affairs, although Denmark retains authority over foreign policy and defence. This gradual move towards independence reflects a stronger recognition of Greenlandic self-determination compared to Alaskan Inuit governance under U.S. policies.

Cultural Preservation and Language

In Alaska, the impact of assimilation policies has been profound. Indigenous languages were systematically suppressed, leading to the near loss of many Native tongues. While efforts are underway to revitalise these languages, the damage caused by decades of erasure remains a significant challenge. Cultural practices, including traditional subsistence lifestyles, have been undermined by economic pressures and environmental changes.

Greenland, by contrast, has made significant strides in preserving its Inuit culture. Kalaallisut (Greenlandic) is the official language, and efforts to integrate Inuit traditions into public life have been central to Greenland’s push for greater autonomy. Unlike Alaska, where English dominates, Greenland has managed to maintain a stronger cultural identity, which is reflected in its political aspirations for eventual independence.

Economic and Geopolitical Implications

Both Alaska and Greenland have been shaped by their strategic and resource-rich Arctic locations. Alaska’s integration into the United States was driven by its natural resources, including oil, gas, and minerals. Similarly, Greenland’s vast reserves of rare earth minerals and its strategic position in the Arctic have drawn interest from global powers, including the United States and China.

Recent developments, such as former U.S. President Donald Trump’s interest in purchasing Greenland, have reignited fears of external pressures on Greenlandic sovereignty. Greenlandic leaders, including Prime Minister Múte B. Egede and ICC Greenland President Hjalmar Dahl, have expressed strong resistance to any move that undermines their self-determination. Dahl has warned against parallels with Alaska, where Inuit communities have faced significant cultural and linguistic erosion under U.S. governance.

Conclusion

While both the United States and Denmark have histories of colonialism in the Arctic, their treatment of Inuit populations reveals critical differences. The United States’ policies in Alaska emphasised assimilation and economic exploitation, often at the expense of cultural preservation. In contrast, Denmark’s governance in Greenland, while paternalistic and occasionally harmful, has allowed for greater self-determination and cultural retention in recent decades.

Greenland’s path toward independence offers a stark contrast to Alaska’s continued integration within the United States. However, both cases underscore the importance of respecting Indigenous rights, preserving cultural heritage, and ensuring that Inuit voices guide decisions about their future. As global interest in the Arctic intensifies, these lessons are more relevant than ever.

GREENLAND